For example, pasta fortified up to a 10% substitution level with lupin flour or chickpea flour are generally well accepted, but negative changes in cooking quality such as higher cooking loss and stickiness, and sensorial attributes with poor acceptability, appear at higher substitution level. It was demonstrated that the introduction 
of 7.5% of insoluble pea fibers in pasta increased the susceptibility of starch to digestive enzymes, due to the disruption of the protein network entrapping starch granules. Spaghetti with high-protein and high-lysine content can be obtained by adding up to 35% soy flour without adverse effect on flavor and texture and should result in greater acceptability of soy-based food. Acceptable cooking quality parameters were obtained in the spaghetti samples containing amaranth, buckwheat and lupine up to 30% of nonconventional flour. Nevertheless, the addition of buckwheat flour in percentages higher than 30% to semolina to produce dry pasta is responsible for its high fragility before cooking, a relevant loss of organic matter into the cooking water and a weak texture after cooking. Therefore, substitution of durum wheat semolina with a high level of legume flours required an adaptation of the pasta making process at a pilot-scale. Indeed, lower hydration level and higher mixing speed are required to limit the agglomeration of particles during mixing and thus facilitate the extrusion of the dough. Moreover, the fortification of pasta with these flours has a noticeable impact on the cooking quality of pasta: the introduction of non-gluten protein and fibers probably affect the structure of pasta and consequently its cooking quality and textural properties. Indeed, the introduction of legume flour dilutes the gluten and weakens the protein network. One way to lessen the detrimental effects of durum wheat substitution in pasta is to add a hydrocolloid emulsifier, such as carrageenan or guar gum, which can interact with starch and various proteins to improve dough viscosity and finished product firmness. Guar gums are often added to food as thickening, binding or stabilizing agents because it can be easily dispersed in water and form viscous solutions. Also galactomannans can affect food microstructure by coating starch granules in a mucilaginous layer, reducing food breakdown rates. Eventually carboxymethylcellulose molecules are usually used as the sodium salt and are on average shorter than cellulose, have high cold water solubility and are mainly used to control viscosity without gelling in foods.
Conclusion
There is no doubt that functional food development has a great interest from consumers, industries, governments and universities: experts proclaim daily that the only hope for business survival is the ability to continue innovating. In this context, the development of new functional food products turns out to be increasingly challenging, as it has to fulfill the consumer’s expectancy for products that are simultaneously relish and healthy. As a result, great variability of techniques are required in order to meet needs and expectancies in this area. The first group is formed by the technologies traditionally used in food processing, as formulation and blending; the second group is constituted by the technologies that forming a structure try to prevent the deterioration of physiologically active compounds. Finally, the third group is formed by recent technologies aimed to design personalized functional foods. The commercial success ultimately depends on taste, appearance, price and health claim appeal to consumers. In summary, the food industry have to bring into consideration many variables to develop or reengineer functional products.
References
- Aravind N. et al., “Effect of soluble fibre (guar gum and carboxymethylcellulose) addition on technological, sensory and structural properties of durum wheat spaghetti”, Food Chemistry, 131, 893–900, 2012
- Aravind N. et al., “Effect of insoluble dietary fibre addition on technological, sensory, and structural properties of durum wheat spaghetti”, Food Chemistry 130, 299–309, 2012
- Betoret E. et al., “Functional foods development: trends and technologies”, Trends in Food Science & Technology, 22, 498-508, 2011
- Brandy M. Howard et al., “Analysis of Ingredient Functionality and Formulation Optimization of Pasta Supplemented with Peanut Flour”, Food Engineering & Physical Properties
- Brennan C.S. and Tudorica C.M., “Fresh Pasta Quality as Affected by Enrichment of Nonstarch Polysaccharides”, Sensory and Nutritive Qualities of Food
- Chillo S. et al., “Influence of the addition of buckwheat flour and durum wheat bran on spaghetti quality”, Journal of Cereal Science, 47, 144–152, 2008
- Chillo S. et al., “Properties of quinoa and oat spaghetti loaded with carboxymethylcellulose sodium salt and pregelatinized starch as structuring agents”, Carbohydrate Polymers, 78, 932–937, 2009
- Grant Linda A. et al., “Spaghetti cooking quality of waxy and non-waxy durum wheats and blends”, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 84, 190–196, 2004
- Marti A. et al., “Quality characteristics of dried pasta enriched with buckwheat flour”, International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 46, 2393–2400, 2011
- Petitot M. et al., “Impact of Legume Flour Addition on Pasta Structure: Consequences On Its In Vitro Starch Digestibility”, Food Biophysics, 5, 284–299, 2010
- Petitot M. et al., “Fortification of pasta with split pea and faba bean flours: Pasta processing and quality evaluation”, Food Research International, 43, 634–641, 2010
By Arianna Roda, Istituto di Enologia e Ingegneria Agro-alimentare, UniversitĂ Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza
