Food companies are influenced by health, ethical, and environmental aspects, as well as concerns about the availability of raw materials and their costs. For this reason they are developing new products, services and business models.
Innovation in the agri-food sector is based on the two major issues that, according to experts, should most influence consumer purchasing decisions: The desire for a healthier and safer diet and a growing attention to the sustainability of their purchases. Product and process innovations are complementary and focused on: Functional foods; microorganisms used as bioreactors capable of producing nutrients through precision fermentation; meat and fish products developed from animal cell cultures; alternative proteins and micronutrients derived from plants (pulses, oilseeds) or from microorganisms (biomass of yeasts, algae or fungi).
Functional foods
A functional food is a food that taken in quantities compatible with a usual diet provides positive effects on consumers’ health and well-being. It may be a naturally occurring food, or a modified a food to which a component has been added or removed, as well as a food where the characteristics and bioavailability of one or more components have been modified or fortified. Primary products can also be enriched during farming or cultivation to produce functional fresh food.
This can be achieved by acting on feed or the context. An example of functional fresh food is eggs enriched with Omega 3. Bioactive compounds are obtained from agricultural products; algae; micro-organisms; inorganic raw materials; wastes from food processing by means of separation, purification and concentration techniques – chosen according to their nature; economic value of the resulting substance and properties of the starting material. Well-established techniques include solvent and water extraction; filtration followed by distillation, evaporation, crystallization or precipitation.
The most promising alternative techniques are extraction using supercritical or low polarity fluid, membrane distillation or molecular separation. A substance is in a supercritical state when its temperature and pressure are above its critical point, where distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist. The speed at which a solvent interacts with a solute is related to the solvent viscosity and the solute’s diffusion coefficient; therefore, compared to a solvent extraction, the extraction with a supercritical fluid of equal solvent power will take place in less time thanks to the better transport properties. These characteristics can be modulated according to the bioactive compounds to be extracted.
The use of supercritical CO2 has considerable advantages: Supercritical conditions (TC= 31.1°C at PC=73.8 bar) within easy reach, low cost, non-flammability. CO2 is easily manipulated and recoverable and is equally easily separable from the solute once the extraction process is complete. Supercritical carbon dioxide is used in the extraction of caffeine, oils, essences, flavourings, micronization of granulated solids. In the case of extraction of polyphenols and anthocyanins, the supercritical substance acts as a solvent by dissolving the compound through the combined action with a polarity modifier such as ethanol or water.
Plant proteins
A second major strand of research concerns the replacement of animal proteins with proteins derived from plants. Also in this case, it is possible to rely on natural ingredients traditionally used in some countries to replace meat, or on emerging technologies. The analogous ingredients include jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam), whose cooking gives it a taste similar to that of a roast, gluten from which to make seitan, and soy transformed into tofu and even high-protein vegetable burgers.
Emerging technologies include the texturization of proteins used as a basic ingredient in meat “imitations.” Texturization breaks down the globular structure of plant proteins, which are then aligned to obtain fibers. The protein raw material can be a flour, an isolate or a concentrate from which to make a low hydration compound later supplemented with water or vegetable broth, or it can be an already highly hydrated compound (up to 70% moisture). In both cases, the protein mixture with added water and oil is inserted into an extruder. Here it is processed and heated under overpressure, to obtain a smooth paste.
The high temperature and pressure cause starch gelatinization of vegetable flours and the protein denaturation. Upon cooling, the surface cools before the heart of the product and the proteins cross-link. The semi-finished product thus obtained has a fibrous consistency similar to that of meat. The process requires precise temperature control and homogenization to achieve the desired final consistency. If the protein extrusion is intended to produce a vegetable substitute for meat, coconut oil is added to simulate animal fat, beet juice to make the finished product red, flavorings and spices to replicate the taste of meat. Cohesion and consistency are ensured by adding binders, mostly potato starch.
Insects as novel food
The broad category of novel foods includes foods and ingredients that are not part of Western dietary habits (insects, fungi, algae, micro-algae), foods from unusual sources (krill oil), new substances added to foods and new technologies applied to foods (UV-treated milk to increase the concentration of vitamin D, meat substitutes from laboratory-grown cells). Edible insects are part of the usual diet of two billion people. The Western populations see them as possible alternative, economical and sustainable protein sources due to the high conversion rate between consumed feed and protein yield.
The most interesting for the food industry are Tenebrio molitor (flour moth), Locusta migratoria and Acheta domesticus (domestic cricket) sold whole dried, frozen or in powder. In the EU, the sale is regulated by the Novel Food Regulation. The product is authorised when, following a favourable opinion of EFSA, the European Authorities and the Member States have reached reasonable certainty as to the safety of the product. Assessing safety and actual nutritional intake is more complicated than expected. The protein content of the insect may be overestimated due to the chitin present in the exoskeleton.
Chitin is a complex polysaccharide where a hydroxyl radical is replaced by an amino group and therefore containing nitrogen. In the determination of proteins, chitin nitrogen is considered crude protein, and the conversion coefficient for total nitrogen may not match that used for foods of animal origin which do not contain chitin. A second source of concern is the risk of allergies. The allergenic potential of the insect can be traced directly to its proteins, to allergen residues in the feed they consumed, to cross-contamination with allergens used in processing plants.
Novel food from yeasts, fungi and algae
Yeasts, molds and edible fungi (mushrooms) are sources of protein, fiber, metals (iron, copper, selenium) and vitamins (riboflavin, niacin, B vitamins, C and D vitamins). They all obtain nourishment by releasing extracellular enzymes into their host environment to break down into monomers complex organic molecules such as polysaccharides and proteins. From monomers, their cells derive carbon and energy. The food industry uses them as sources of mycoproteins. Those made from the mushroom Fusarium venenatum give semi-finished products with a texture similar to that of meat and are a source of emulsifiers and foaming agents.
They are, for example, the basic ingredient of the Quorn brand, which offers meat-alternative products for vegetarians and vegans. In the vegetarian line, mycoprotein is mixed with egg white, in the vegan line the binder consists of potato protein. Agaricus bisporus exposed to ultraviolet radiation in a bioreactor converts the mushroom’s ergosterol into vitamin D2. Marine algae contribute 30% of the world’s aquaculture production, regulating surrounding marine ecosystems, providing a valuable source of livelihood for aquatic species, combating climate change through the absorption of large amounts of carbon dioxide, and reducing CO2 levels in the atmosphere.
Marine algae are also used to treat wastewater by absorbing excess nutrients and removing contaminants. In fact, they clean up environments by removing heavy metals and other pollutants, and function as a valuable nutritional source rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals, like iron and iodine. Micro-algae are microscopic organisms that form the base of the aquatic food chain. They are the foundation for plant life on Earth, and serve as a rich, sustainable source of biochemicals.
They are also considered the first living beings capable of photosynthesis. The most used for food purposes are Chlorell and Spirulina because they are rich in proteins, containing essential amino acids and phytohormones. The production is started by yeast fermentation of biomass; the first biomass thus obtained is transferred to photobioreactors, where key parameters are monitored to ensure the growth of a stable, homogeneous product free from contaminants.
The cultivation of animal cells for food purposes
Meat is a portion of muscle made up of muscle fibers and fat cells. For years, research has been focused on the possibility of replicating it in a laboratory. The reasons are many and varied: Cost-effectiveness, attention to the environment, animal welfare and safety guaranteed by controlled conditions. The process begins by taking a sample of cells from the animal’s muscle. Stem cells are selected from the tissue and are cultivated in a controlled environment to become specific cells, such as muscle fibers or fat cells. Differentiated cells are grown in specific plant-based culture media.
The third component of the system is the carrier, i.e. a three-dimensional scaffold for the development of tissues. It may be of animal origin (gelatin or collagen) or cellulosic material. Growth takes place in bioreactors, under controlled conditions of temperature, oxygen, humidity. The cells extracted from the bioreactor are then processed to obtain the shape of the finished product. The supporters of this process cite environmental protection as the main advantage. Data indicate that 14% of greenhouse gases produced annually in the world are accounted for by livestock, 33% of cultivated land is dedicated to animal feed, while meat contributes only 14% to meeting the world’s caloric intake.
A second advantage comes from having full control of the conditions of cell development and thus the certainty of the absence of external contaminants, be they microbiological or chemical (hormones, antibiotics or other sources of contamination). A third advantage is that it is possible to set and control the nutritional balance of the finished product. The doubts concern the initial costs for production, though these are expected to decrease with technological advancement and scaling, and potential negative impacts on livestock farming communities, especially if the transition to cultured meat is rapid and uncontrolled. Research in the EU has shown that farmers do not see this as a direct threat to their business to date, but are willing to work with companies as potential suppliers of stem cells and raw materials for culture media.
However, the shift from laboratory testing to large-scale production remains a major economic and technical challenge. Companies are also encouraged by the fact that, even with varying percentages from country to country, consumers are willing to take advantage of this new opportunity. The product is currently marketed in the USA and Singapore and is under advanced evaluation in Switzerland and the UK. There are just under 200 farms producing cultured meat and they are predominantly start-ups, although some multinationals are investing in the sector through project funding and acquisitions. The big companies that first took this path are JBS, Tyson, Cargill, Nestlé, Central Bottling Co. and Danone. The latter has invested USD 2 million in the Israeli startup Wilk, which develops breast milk components for use in baby products. JBS has funded research centers in Brazil, Tyson Foods has invested in Omeat, UPSIDE Foods and Believer Meats.
The ideal culture media
Several start-ups are working on the development of optimal culture media for use in bioreactors. Soybean flour, dried maize, canola flour, brewer’s spent grains are the raw materials from which to obtain cheap and sustainable hydrolysates. The production facilities already operating in South Korea and Singapore use fermented soy flour and okara (by-product of the processing of vegetable milk substitutes based on soy, almonds, rice, oats, spelt or hazelnut). Other studies have led companies to use enzymes and compounds extracted from cyanobacteria and microalgae and to study the conditions that optimize the yield of peptides and amino acids from high-protein soy and peanut flours.
The industry is also committed to preventing the accumulation of toxic metabolites, primarily ammonia, by using genetic engineering, modifications to culture media to arrive at formulas that meet the metabolic requirements of each cell line. Another fruitful line of research concerns the refinement of the organoleptic characteristics of the products thus obtained. Studies are being conducted to improve taste, texture, and nutritional characteristics, and to develop products based on the cooking techniques that are expected to be used. Criteria and methods of analysis are derived from those used for conventional meat.
The same applies to the methods that can be used to characterize, authenticate and trace cultured meat in order to distinguish it from conventional meat. Another open issue is improving the cohesion between cultivated muscle and fat. Co-culture of myogenic (muscle) and adipogenic (fat) cells is complicated by the need to feed them with different media, and their tendency to influence each other’s activity. Alternative approaches not involving co-differentiation are being tested for this purpose. The results are encouraging because, unlike regenerative medicine, cultured meat does not require continuous cell vitality, thus allowing for more options for the development of the final tissue structure.
